Internationalization is the process of making a website that is adaptable to different locales (regions or languages). Translation is a large part of it, but there are other aspects, like date formatting, for example.

There is no single standard way to do internationalization. In this article we’ll learn the approach I chose, but there are other ways to achieve a similar result.

URLs

To make an internationalized app SEO friendly, it’s recommended to have locale-prefixed URLs. This means, if we have a dashboard page, the URL for it will be something like: /<lang>/dashboard.

This, of course, leaves the possibility of someone visiting our pages without a prefix, for example: /dashboard. In this scenario, we will use locale detection to redirect users to the correct page for their language.

In a previous post, we learned about asynchronous programming with Tokio. This time, we are going to use Axum to build a server that uses Tokio as runtime.

Hello world

Creating a simple server with Axum only requires a few lines:

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#[tokio::main]
async fn main() {
    let app = Router::new().route("/", get(|| async { "Hello, World!" }));
    let listener = tokio::net::TcpListener::bind("0.0.0.0:3000").await.unwrap();
    axum::serve(listener, app).await.unwrap();
}

If we run this code, we will see a Hello, World! message if we visit http://localhost:3000.

I’m working a project that uses Firestore, so I’m using the firestore crate to help me interact with my database.

There are two examples showing the use of transactions in the source code:

• transactions.rs
• read-write-transactions.rs

There are some parts of those examples that are a little confusing, so I’m writing this article to try and shed some light.

I was not the only one confused by this, and luckily someone brought this up in a Github issue before I had to.

Unrecoverable errors

These errors are a sign that the developer made a mistake. An example of this, could be trying to access an index that is out of bounds. For example:

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fn get_number() -> usize {
    return 5;
}

fn main() {
    let numbers = [1, 2];
    println!("{}", numbers[get_number()]);
}

I’m building a little web server with Rust and as part of it, I’m going to need to send some e-mails to my users. I found a few services that offer an e-mail API with a free tier, and decided to go with Brevo.

Authenticating our domain

In order for our e-mails to reach our users’ inboxes, we need to correctly configure our DKIM and DMARC records so they can be used by Brevo.

We can’t authenticate e-mails from free email providers like Gmail. So, before we can authenticate our domain, we need to own a domain. I’m going to use my blog’s domain (ncona.com).

I’m building a project for an ESP32 microcontroller (which works with 3.3v logic), and my project needs to get information from a 5v sensor.

Connecting the 5v directly to a GPIO (General Purpose Input/Output) pin would probably damage the chip. To prevent this, we can use a voltage divider to lower the voltage.

Voltage dividers

A voltage divider is a simple circuit that given an input voltage, it produces a lower output voltage. A simple representation looks like this:

I’m working on a circuit where I need to use a sensor that mentions using an open collector (Also known as: open drain, open emitter or open source) output. In this post, we are going to learn what this is and how to use open collector components.

The term open in open collector refers to an “open” digital circuit. Which means that a pin in our component is not connected to a HIGH or a LOW signal. It is, effectively, undefined.

When we have an open collector output, the output will toggle between LOW and undefined. This happens, because of the way the component is connected internally, which often looks like this:

Interrupts

Interrupts are a way to achieve concurrency when working with microcontrollers.

An interrupt allows us to “interrupt” the current execution of a program in order to do a different task. This is usually achieved by instructing the microcontroller to look for level changes (From high to low or from low to high) on a GPIO pin and executing a function when that happens.

Interrupt Service Routines (ISR)

ISRs are callback functions that are executed when an interrupt is triggered. They should be made very fast and simple, because they block the execution of other parts of the system.

They are special in that they can’t block execution waiting for a lock and then resume when the lock is available. If we try to hold a mutex within an ISR, the program will crash. For this reason, many ESP-IDF functions (e.g. ESP_LOG functions) can’t be used inside an ISR.

If you need a reminder about resistors in general, you can take a look at my resistors article.

Floating pins

Pull resistors are used to solve the problem of floating pins, so let’s briefly explain what that is.

In the following diagram, we have a simple IC (Integrated Circuit) that works with 5V and has a single GPIO (General Purpose Input/Output) pin:

In my previous article, we learned how to build a stand-alone library for esp-idf. In this article we are going to learn how to write unit tests for our code so we can have confidence it does what we want it to do.

There are a few ways we can go about unit testing code written for ESP32:

• Run tests directly on ESP32 board
• Run tests using an emulator
• Run tests on Linux host using mocks

We are going to learn how to write tests that can run on a Linux host, so it’s easy to plug them to a CI system.